How Latent Learning Works According to Psychology

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In psychology, latent learning refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. For example, a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is not immediately apparent. Only when the child is offered some form of reinforcement (like a grade) for completing the problem does this learning reveal itself.

Why Latent Learning Matters

Latent learning is important because in most cases the information we have learned is not always recognizable until the moment that we need to display it. While you might have learned how to cook a roast by watching your parents prepare dinner, this learning may not be apparent until you find yourself having to cook a meal on your own. 

When we think about the learning process, we often focus only on learning that is immediately obvious. We teach a rat to run through a maze by offering food as a reward for correct responses. We train a student to raise their hand in class by offering praise for the appropriate behaviors. But not all learning is immediately apparent.

Sometimes learning only becomes evident when we need to utilize it. According to psychologists, this "hidden" learning that only manifests itself when something motivates us is known as latent learning.

Discovery of Latent Learning

The term latent learning was coined by Hugh Blodgett in 1929. In experiments that involved having groups of rats run a maze, rats that initially received no reward still learned the course, and demonstrated their learning only after a reward was presented.

Edward Tolman expanded on Blodgett’s research and explained that the rats were able to draw upon their "cognitive map" of the maze once rewards were introduced.

A cognitive map refers to a mental representation of an environment. Such maps can be formed through observation as well as through trial and error. These cognitive maps allow people to orient themselves in their environment.

Even more surprising, the group of rats who weren’t given a reward until the 11th day of the experiment, outperformed the group of rats who were given a reward from day one, once the reward was introduced to them. These observations demonstrated that active learning could take place outside of the stimulus-response relationship, even though an organism does not display it right away.

Tolman rejected the standard behaviorist theory of his day that indicated behavior could only be learned by reinforcement. He asserted that there were cognitive processes involved and he applied these concepts to human learning. He suggested that we are always taking in facts and information around us creating a framework of how everything is related to each other, and we can access it when we need it.

Consider your knowledge of various routes in your hometown. Every day you travel a variety of routes and learn the locations of different businesses in your town. However, this learning is latent because you are not using it most of the time. It is only when you need to find a specific location such as the nearest coffee shop or bus stop that you are required to draw on and demonstrate what you have learned.

Decades later, neuroscientists have been able to explain this cognitive map at the cellular level. Specific neurons in the hippocampus and other brain regions are involved in spatial navigation skills.

Latent Learning Observations 

In his book History of Psychology, author David Hothersall explained that while there was initially some controversy surrounding the phenomenon, numerous researchers also reported that lab rats did learn in the absence of rewards.

This notion challenged much of what the behaviorists believed, which was that learning could only occur with reinforcement. As a result, some of the more entrenched behaviorists suggested that there must have been some sort of reinforcement present during the non-reward trials, even if that reinforcement was not immediately obvious.

Research has demonstrated that the latent learning phenomenon is, as Hothersall explained, "reliable and robust."

It is well understood that rats placed in a maze will learn the route they need to follow to obtain a food reward, but research has also demonstrated that the rats learned the rest of the maze as well.

The burning questions are: Why do the rats learn the whole maze when it doesn't seem relevant? And how do investigators demonstrate that this latent learning has taken place?

Simple. When experimenters block the learned route, the rats would then use the next shortest path to get to the food. In order to do this, the rats must have learned the rest of the maze as well (all of the wrong ways and dead ends that didn't lead to food), even if such learning occurred without reinforcement.

These findings suggest that learning occurs as we go, often by accident, but not just because of incentives and rewards. So how does such latent learning take place? Some experts suggest that simply satisfying our curiosity often serves as the reward for our learning.

Latent learning and cognitive maps correlate with many higher-level mental abilities, such as problem-solving and planning for the future.

Highly Complex Decision Makers

Are humans simple stimulus-response machines or are they highly complex decision-makers?

Consider the idea of distant future rewards as motivators for learning. If students learn something in the present, according to a traditional behaviorist, they may be rewarded with good grades, a high GPA, and praise from their parents. They should then continue on this path because it is reinforcing.

However, a cognitive psychologist may consider the complex mental processes taking place. The student may also be motivated by the hope of gaining acceptance to the college of their choice in the future. Their future success holds future rewards, like a good job, decent pay, and the ability to support a family. They consider the way they should go, and the way they shouldn't go. The dots are connecting, the framework is forming, goals can be set, and they can plan for the future.

The rewards of this learning may not be apparent or immediate, but in this example, learning may take place in anticipation of a reward later on down the road. Tolman would say that the student is taking it all in, creating their cognitive map, so they can later demonstrate what they have learned by solving problems as they present themselves, and making highly complex decisions when the right time comes.

8 Sources
Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
  1. Blodgett HC. The effect of the introduction of reward upon the maze performance of ratsUniversity of California Publications in Psychology. 1929;4:113-134.

  2. Tolman EC. Cognitive maps in rats and menPsychological Review. 1948;55(4):189–208. doi:10.1037/h0061626

  3. BehrensTEJ, Muller TH, Whittington JCR, et al. What is a cognitive map? Organizing knowledge for flexible behaviorNeuron. 2018;100(2):490-509. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2018.10.002

  4. Eichenbaum H. The hippocampus as a cognitive map … of social spaceNeuron. 2015;87(1):9-11. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.06.013

  5. Hothersall D. History of Psychology. McGraw-Hill Humanities Social; 2004.

  6. Iordanova MD, Good MA, Honey RC. Configural learning without reinforcement: Integrated memories for correlates of what, where, and whenQuarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2008;61(12):1785-1792. doi:10.1080/17470210802194324

  7. Wang MZ, Hayden BY. Latent learning, cognitive maps, and curiosityCurrent Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 2021;38:1-7. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.06.003

  8. Chen J. Cognitive Mapping for Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: Theory, Research, and Assessment. 1st ed. Routledge; 2022. doi:10.4324/9781003305439

Additional Reading
  • Coon D. Mitterer JO. Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior With Concept Maps. Wadsworth; 2010.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd
Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."